Introduction
Some of the following materials are specifically designed for persons whose native language is Chinese.
Lesson 16
Section 1
Intonation and Stress in English
Listen to the following sentence…
“The boys didn’t have time to finish their homework before the lesson began.”
…by clicking on the audio track below. (every word pronounced carefully)
Now listen to it again by clicking on the audio track below. (intonation and stress)
Which sounds more natural? I bet you said the second. That’s because the second is spoken with intonation and stress.
Correct intonation and stress are the key to speaking English fluently with good pronunciation. Intonation and stress refer to the music of the English language. Words that are stressed are key to understanding and using the correct intonation brings out the meaning.
[Note: Intonation means the way the voice goes up and down as you speak, and stress means the emphasis on a sound.]
Introduction to Intonation and Stress
Exercise
Listen to Sentence 1 below and then say it aloud and count how many seconds it takes.
Sentence 1: “The beautiful mountain appeared transfixed in the distance.”
How much time did it take you to say Sentence 1? Probably about five seconds.
Now, listen to Sentence 2 below and then say it aloud and count how many seconds it takes.
Sentence 2: “He can come on Sundays as long as he doesn't have to do any homework in the evening.”
How much time did it take you to say Sentence 2? Probably about five seconds.
How can they take the same amount of time?
Sentence 1, “The beautiful mountain appeared transfixed in the distance.” is 14 syllables.
[Note: A syllable is one or more letters representing a unit of spoken language consisting of a single uninterrupted sound. A syllable is made up of either a single vowel sound (as in the pronunciation of oh for the letter “o”) or a combination of vowel and consonant(s) (as in no and not).]
The syllables in Sentence 1 are:
“The(1) beau(2)ti(3)ful(4) moun(5)tain(6) a(7)ppeared(8) trans(9)fixed(10) in(11) the(12) dist(13)ance(14).”
Sentence 2, “He can come on Sundays as long as he doesn't have to do any homework in the evening.” is 22 syllables.
The syllables in sentence 2 are:
“He(1) can(2) come(3) on(4) Sun(5)days(6) as(7) long(8) as(9) he(10) does(11)n't(12) have(13) to(14) do(15) any(16) home(17)work(18) in(19) the(20) eve(21)ning(22).”
Even though Sentence 2 has greater than 30 percent more syllables than Sentence 1, the sentences take the same time to speak.
This is because there are five stressed words (in italics) in each sentence.
Sentence 1, “The beautiful mountain appeared transfixed in the distance.”
Sentence 2, “He can come on Sundays as long as he doesn't have to do any homework in the evening.”
From this example, you can see that you needn't worry about pronouncing every word clearly to be understood. You should concentrate on pronouncing the stressed words clearly.
This exercise makes an important point about how English is spoken. Namely, English is considered a stressed language. That means we give stress to certain words while other words are quickly spoken. English spends more time on specific stressed words while quickly gliding over the other, less important, words.
Exercise
The following exercise will help with pronunciation by focusing on the stressing content words rather than function words.
[Note: Content words include main verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.]
Let's look at a simple example: the verb "can." When we use the positive form of "can" we quickly glide over the “can” and it is hardly pronounced.
“They can come on Friday.” (stressed words in italics)
On the other hand, when we use the negative form "can't" we tend to stress the fact that it is the negative form by also stressing "can't".
“They can't come on Friday.” (stressed words in italics)
As you can see from the above example the sentence, "They can't come on Friday" is longer than "They can come on Friday" because both "can't" and "come" are stressed.
Understanding Which Words to Stress
To begin, you need to understand which words English speakers generally stress and which they do not stress.
Stress words are considered content words such as:
Nouns (e.g., kitchen, Peter)
(Most) main verbs (e.g., visit, construct)
Adjectives (e.g., beautiful, interesting)
Adverbs (e.g., often, carefully)
Negatives including negative helping verbs, and words with "no" such as "nothing," "nowhere," etc.
Words expressing quantities (e.g., a lot of, a few, many, etc.)
Non-stressed words are considered function words such as:
Determiners (e.g., the, a, some, a few)
Auxiliary verbs (e.g., don't, am, can, were)
Prepositions (e.g., before, next to, opposite)
Conjunctions (e.g., but, while, as)
Pronouns (e.g., they, she, us)
Verbs "have" and "be" even when used as main verbs
Quiz
Write down ‘C’ for content and ‘F’ for function.
went (C)
with (F)
just (C)
quickly (C)
the (F)
hard (C)
next to (F)
CD ROM (C)
open (C)
had (C)
for (F)
information (C)
in order to (C)
difficult (C)
much (C)
exacting (C)
in front of (C)
Jack (C)
he (F)
however (F)
Exercise
Mark the stressed words in the following sentences. After you have found the stressed words, practice reading the sentences aloud.
John is coming over tonight. We are going to work on our homework together.
Ecstasy is an extremely dangerous drug.
We should have visited some more castles while we were traveling through the back roads of France.
Jack bought a new car last Friday.
They are looking forward to your visiting them next January.
Exciting discoveries lie in Tom's future.
Would you like to come over and play a game of chess?
They have been having to work hard these last few months on their challenging experiment.
Shakespeare wrote passionate, moving poetry.
As you might have expected, he has just thought of a new approach to the problem
Exercise
Speak through the following sentences trying to carefully pronounce EVERY word. Notice how unnatural this sounds. Next, focus on speaking the sentences stressing only content words. Do this and you will be surprised at how quickly your pronunciation improves.
By the time he receives this letter, I will have caught the train to Paris.
Following closely behind the herd was a group of filthy, disgusting vultures.
I'll make sure to give him a ring the next time I'm in town.
Not only are the exams required, but they are also absolutely imperative for your further education.
Hey, have you seen the new film with Bruce Willis? You know, the one where he's supposed to be a sensitive doctor.
Exercise
Test your knowledge by identifying which words are content words and should be stressed in the following sentences:
They've been learning English for two months.
My friends have nothing to do this weekend.
I would have visited in April if I had known Peter was in town.
Natalie will have been studying for four hours by six o'clock.
The boys and I will spend the weekend next to the lake fishing for trout.
Jennifer and Alice had finished the report before it was due last week.
Answers:
Words in italics are stressed content words while unstressed function words are in lower case.
They've been learning English for two months.
My friends have nothing to do this weekend.
I would have visited in April if i had known Peter was in town.
Natalie will have been studying for fours hours by six o'clock.
The boys and i will spend the weekend next to the lake fishing for trout.
Jennifer and Alice had finished the report before it was due last week.
Exercise
Decide which words are function and content words in the following sentences.
Mary has lived in England for ten years.
He's going to fly to Chicago next week.
I don't understand this chapter of the book.
The children will be swimming in the ocean this time next week.
John had eaten lunch before his colleague arrived.
The best time to study is early in the morning or late in the evening.
The trees along the river are beginning to blossom.
Our friends called us yesterday and asked if we'd like to visit them next month.
You'll be happy to know that she's decided to take the position.
I won't give away your secret.
Check your answers below:
Exercise Answers
Content words are in bold.
Mary has lived in England for ten years.
He's going to fly to Chicago next week.
I don't understand this chapter of the book.
The children will be swimming in the ocean at five o'clock.
John had eaten lunch before his colleague arrived.
The best time to study is early in the morning or late in the evening.
The trees along the river are beginning to blossom.
Our friends called us yesterday and asked if we'd like to visit them next month.
You'll be happy to know that she's decided to take the position.
I won't give away your secret.
Exercise
Paragraph to be Read:
Our school is the best in town. The teachers are friendly, and very knowledgeable about English. I've studied at the school for two years and my English is becoming very good. I hope you will visit our school and try an English class. Maybe we can become friends.
Paragraph with Sound Scripting Markup:
Our school is the BEST in town. The teachers are friendly, and VERY KNOWLEDGEABLE about English. I've studied at the school for two years and my English is becoming VERY GOOD. I hope you will visit our school and try an English class. MAYBE we can become FRIENDS.
Paragraph to be Read:
In this day and age, facts, statistics and other numbers are used to prove everything. Intuition, gut feelings and personal preferences are all out the door. Of course, there are some who are trying to battle this trend. Recently Malcolm Gladwell wrote Blink, a best-seller which explores the usefulness of making split-second decisions based on intuition rather than careful consideration of all the facts and figures.
In this book, Gladwell argues that initial impressions - or gut-feelings - are quite rational. However, that this “split-second” thinking process moves faster than what we usually associate with thinking. If you are one of those people - and there are many of us - Blink provides “proof” that yo’ure actually quite a rational human being.
Paragraph with Sound Scripting Markup:
In this day and age, facts, statistics and other numbers are used to prove EVERYTHING. Intuition, gut feelings and personal preferences are all OUT THE DOOR. Of course, there ARE some who are trying to battle this trend. Recently, Malcolm Gladwell wrote Blink, a best-seller which explores the USEFULNESS of making SPLIT-SECOND DECISIONS based on INTUITION rather than careful consideration of all the facts and figures.
In this book, Gladwell argues that INITIAL IMPRESSIONS - or GUT-FEELINGS - are quite rational. However, that this "split-second" thinking process moves FASTER than what we usually associate with thinking. If YOU are one of these people - and there are MANY of us - Blink provides "PROOF" that you're actually quite a RATIONAL HUMAN BEING.
Quiz
Test your knowledge by identifying which words are content words and should be stressed in the following sentences:
They've been learning English for two months.
My friends have nothing to do this weekend.
I would have visited in April if I had known Peter was in town.
Natalie will have been studying for four hours by six o'clock.
The boys and I will spend the weekend next to the lake fishing for trout.
Jennifer and Alice had finished the report before it was due last week.
Answers:
Words in italics are stressed content words while unstressed function words are in lower case.
They've been learning English for two months.
My friends have nothing to do this weekend.
I would have visited in April if i had known Peter was in town.
Natalie will have been studying for fours hours by six o'clock.
The boys and i will spend the weekend next to the lake fishing for trout.
Jennifer and Alice had finished the report before it was due last week.
Practice
Speak to your native English speaking friends and listen to how they concentrate on the stressed words rather than giving importance to each syllable. As you begin to listen and use stressed words, you will discover words you thought you didn't understand are really not crucial for understanding the sense or making yourself understood. Stressed words are the key to excellent pronunciation and understanding of English.
Using a Focus Word to Help with Pronunciation
Pronunciation can be improved by focusing on the right words. Knowing the difference between content words and function words is the first step. We stress content words in English as they provide the words that are most important to understanding a sentence.
Function words like the prepositions "at," "from," or "to" are not stressed, whereas content words such as the nouns "city" or "investment" and main verbs like "study" or "develop" are stressed because they are key to understanding.
Step 1: Find the Focus Word
Once you are familiar with using content words to help with stress and intonation, it's time to take it to the next level by choosing a focus word. The focus word (or words in some cases) is the most important word in a sentence. For example:
Why didn't you telephone? I waited all day!
In these two sentences, the word "telephone" is the central focus. It's the key to understanding both sentences. Someone might answer this question by saying:
I didn't telephone because I was so busy.
In this case, "busy" would be the focus word as it provides the main explanation for someone being late.
When saying the focus word, it's common to stress this word more than the other content words. This may include raising the voice or speaking the word louder to add emphasis.
Step 2: Change Focus Words to Move the Conversation Along
Focus words may change as you move through a conversation. It's common to choose focus words that provide the next topic for discussion. Take a look at this short conversation, notice how the focus word (marked in bold) changes to move the conversation forward.
Bob: We're flying to Las Vegas next week.
Alice: Why are you going there?
Bob: I'm going to win a fortune!
Alice: You need to get real. Nobody wins a fortune in Las Vegas.
Bob: That's not true. Jack won a fortune there last year.
Alice: No, Jack got married. He didn't win a fortune.
Bob: That's what I call winning a fortune. I don't need to gamble to win a fortune.
Alice: Looking for love in Las Vegas is definitely not the answer.
Bob: OK. What is the answer in your opinion?
Alice: I think you need to start dating girls from here.
Bob: Don't get me started on girls from here. They're all out of my league!
Alice: Come on Bob, you're a nice guy. You will find someone.
Bob: I hope so...
Stressing these key words helps change the topic from a vacation in Las Vegas to finding someone to marry to solving Bob's love life issues.
Now listen to the conversation without interruption.
Practice
Now it's up to you to choose the focus word. Choose the focus word for each sentence or group of short sentences. Next, practice speaking these sentences while making sure to emphasize the stress word more.
What do you want to do this afternoon? I'm bored!
Why didn't you tell me she had a birthday?
I'm hungry. Let's get some lunch.
Nobody's here. Where has everyone gone?
I think Tom should buy lunch. I bought lunch last week.
Are you going to finish work or waste time?
You always complain about work. I think you need to stop.
Let's get Italian food. I'm tired of Chinese food.
The students are getting horrible grades. What's wrong?
Our class is going to have a test on Friday. Make sure you prepare.
The focus word for most of these should be clear. However, remember that it's possible to change the focus word in order to bring out different meanings.
Changing Meaning Through Word Stress
When you are speaking English the words you stress can change the underlying meaning of a sentence.
An Example
Let's take a look at the following sentence:
I don't think he should get the job.
This simple sentence can have many levels of meaning based on the word you stress. Consider the meaning of the following sentences with the stressed word in bold. Read each sentence aloud and give a strong stress to the word in bold:
I don't think he should get that job.
Meaning: Somebody else thinks he should get that job.
I don't think he should get that job.
Meaning: It's not true that I think he should get that job.
I don't think he should get that job.
Meaning: That's not really what I mean. OR I'm not sure he'll get that job.
I don't think he should get that job.
Meaning: Somebody else should get that job.
I don't think he should get the job.
Meaning: In my opinion it's wrong that he's going to get that job.
I don't think he should get that job.
Meaning: He should have to earn (be worthy of, work hard for) that job.
I don't think he should get that job.
Meaning: He should get another job.
I don't think he should get that job.
Meaning: Maybe he should get something else instead.
As you can see, there are many different ways this sentence can be understood. The important point to remember is that the true meaning of the sentence is also expressed through the stressed word or words.
Exercise
Here is an exercise to help you develop the art of correct word stress. Take the following sentence:
I said she might consider a new haircut.
Say the sentence below aloud using the stress word marked in bold. Once you have spoken the sentence a few times, match the sentence version to the meaning.
Sentence Version
1. I said she might consider a new haircut.
2. I said she might consider a new haircut.
3. I said she might consider a new haircut.
4. I said she might consider a new haircut.
5. I said she might consider a new haircut.
6. I said she might consider a new haircut.
7. I said she might consider a new haircut.
Meaning
A. Not just a haircut.
B. It’s a possibility.
C. It was my idea.
D. Not something else.
E. Don’t you understand me?
F. Not another person.
G. She should think about it. It’s a good idea.
Answers to the word stress exercise:
I said she might consider a new haircut.
It was my idea.I said she might consider a new haircut.
Don't you understand me?I said she might consider a new haircut.
Not another person.I said she might consider a new haircut.
It's a possibility.I said she might consider a new haircut.
She should think about it. it's a good idea.I said she might consider a new haircut.
Not just a haircut.I said she might consider a new haircut.
Not something else.
Exercise
Write out a number of sentences. Read each of them stressing a different word each time you read them. Notice how the meaning changes depending on which word you stress. Don't be afraid to exaggerate the stress, in English we often use this device to add meaning to a sentence. It's quite possible that when you think you are exaggerating, it will sound quite natural to native speakers.
Dialogues to Practice Stress and Intonation
Dialogues can come in handy when working on stress and intonation (stress and intonation). Students move beyond focusing on single phonemic pronunciation issues and concentrate instead on bringing the right intonation and stress to larger structures. Students can play with meaning through stress by creating dialogues that focus on stressing individual words to clarify meaning.
Use dialogues that students are familiar with so that they can focus on pronunciation rather than vocabulary, new forms, etc.
Introduce students to the concept of using stress and intonation to highlight content words while "brushing over" function words.
Ask students to highlight their dialogues by marking the content words in each of their lines.
Students practice the dialogues together focusing on improving their pronunciation through stress and intonation.
Base Impromptu Skits on Dialogues
One of my favorite uses of shorter language function dialogues (i.e. shopping, ordering in a restaurant, etc.) for lower levels is to extend the activity by first practicing dialogues, and then asking students to act out dialogues without any help. If you are practicing a number of dialogues, you can add an element of chance by having students pick their target situation out of a hat.
Provide numerous short situational dialogues for a target linguistic function (linguistic function). For example, for shopping students can practice exchanges of trying on clothing, asking for help, asking for a different size, paying for items, asking for a friend's advice, etc.
Have students practice each situation multiple times.
Write each situation on a small piece of paper.
Students choose a situation randomly and act it out on the spot without any dialogue cues.
Extend Dialogues to full Blown Productions
Some situational dialogues just call out for full blown productional values. For example, when practicing modal verbs of deduction using a dialogue to make suppositions about what might have happened makes a perfect scenario for practice. Students can begin with a dialogue to get the gist of a scenario, and then let their imaginations take over.
Introduce target structure in class. Good structures for longer "skits" include: conditional forms, reported speech, modal verbs of deduction, speculating about the future, imagining a different past (past modal verbs of deduction).
Provide a dialogue with targeted structure as inspiration.
Divide the class up into smaller groups, each in the group should have a role.
Using the dialogue as a model, students should create their own longer multiple person skit.
Students practice and then perform for the rest of the class.
Paraphrase Dialogues
Paraphrasing dialogues can help students focus on related structures. Begin slowly by asking students to substitute or paraphrase shorter forms. End with more extended dialogues.
Provide short dialogues to students and ask them paraphrase shorter phrases. For example, if the dialogue asks for suggestions with a phrase such as "Let's go out tonight", students should be able to come up with "Why don't we go out tonight", "How about going out for a night on the town", etc.
Hand out a few different dialogues, ask students to read the dialogue and then create another dialogue "on the fly" without using the same exact words. Students can take a look at the original lines, but must use other words and phrases.
Ask students to read a dialogue to another pair. This pair in turn attempts to repeat the dialogue through paraphrase.